Music Appreciation Unit One Lab Questions

1.Describe some of the influence of Latin music in the US in the early part of the twentieth century. In the early part of the twentieth century, Latin music influenced the creation of a new type of music, Afro-Cuban Jazz.2.What was the significance of â€Å"Machito and His Afro-Cubans†? â€Å"Machito and His Afro-Cubans† created the genre of Afro-Cuban Jazz and created a bridge between the two cultures, and found success with white people.3.How did Dizzy Gillespie incorporate Latin music into his music? Dizzy Gillespie invited a player from Cuba named Chano, and the two of them worked together.4.What was the Palladium?Palladium was located in mid-town Manhattan. It was a former dance studio, but it was transformed into the home of the Mambo.5.How did the television and films increase the exposure of the US to Latin music? The television and films increased the exposure of the US to Latin music, because it allowed the public to slowly become familiarized with it. Televi sion shows like â€Å"I Love Lucy† showed that white women and Cuban men could be together. Due to the fact that the men were Cuban, they also played their music on the show as well. 6.How did Latin music influence rock music?Latin music influenced rock music they both had the same chord progression, bass lines and rhythms. 7.Why do you think Latin music had such a great influence on the development of popular music? I believe that the reason why Latin Music had such a great influence on the development of popular music, is because it was new, and its upbeat rhythms made it easy to listen to and encouraged people to dance and have a great time. 8.Do you think that any of the music that you listen to has Latin influences? Why or why not? Yes, I do believe that Latin music has influenced the music I listen to. I listen to Latin artists such as Pitbull, and I enjoy his music very much. At the same time, I listen to a lot of upbeat rhythm songs that have somewhat of a Latin feel to them.

Proc Report Secreates

PharmaSUG 2012 – Paper TF20-SAS PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software Allison McMahill Booth, SAS Institute Inc. , Cary, NC, USA ABSTRACT Have you ever wondered why a numeric variable is referenced in different forms within a COMPUTE block? Do you know the difference between a DATA step variable and a variable that is listed in the COLUMN statement? Then, this paper is for you! Welcome to PROC REPORT Unwrapped. We are looking at PROC REPORT and uncovering some of the behind-the-scenes details about this classic procedure.We will explore the components associated with PROC REPORT and discover ways to move column headings and change default attributes with styles and CALL DEFINE statements. We will also dig deep into example code and explore the new ability to use multilabel formatting for creating subgroup combinations. So for anyone who has ever written PROC REPORT code, stay tuned. It's PROC REPORT Unwr apped! INTRODUCTION Which popular SAS procedure has features of the PRINT, MEANS, and TABULATE procedures and features of the DATA step in a single report-writing tool?It enables you to create a variety of reports including a detail report, which contains a row of data for every input data set observation, or a summary report, which consolidates data so that each row represents multiple input data set observations. Here is another hint: this same procedure provides the ability to create both default and customized summaries, add text and statistics, and create columns of data that do not exist in the input data set. If you guessed PROC REPORT, you are correct!For anyone who has written PROC REPORT code and has wondered what is going on behind the scenes, this is the paper for you. This paper explores some of the behind-the-scenes secrets of PROC REPORT. We will dig deep into example code as we begin to uncover some of the details of this classic report-writing procedure. As a bonus, you will discover some facts about the REPORT procedure that you might not have known. By the way, the code output in this paper is based on the SAS ® 9. 3 default output destination of HTML. Although most of the paper ontent can also be applied to the LISTING destination, the code that is shown in this paper is intended to be used in an Output Delivery System (ODS) destination, unless otherwise indicated. With that being said†¦are you ready to explore? Welcome to PROC REPORT Unwrapped! EXPLORING THE SECRETS (HOW IT’S MADE) PROC REPORT first began life as a procedure many years ago in SAS ® 6. Since then, it has been gaining popularity as the tool of choice for report writing. Even with such popularity, there are still aspects of the REPORT procedure that can be further explored.In this segment, we will unwrap and explore some of the secrets behind this most popular procedure with a focus on the following components: ? referencing a numeric variable in a COMPUTE blo ck ? exploring the difference between an input data set variable and a DATA step variable ? discovering ways to move column headings ? changing default attributes with styles ? using the CALL DEFINE statement ? exploring the new ability in SAS 9. 3 to use multilabel formatting for creating subgroup combinations Let’s start exploring the secrets! REFERENCING A NUMERIC VARIABLE IN A COMPUTE BLOCKAll numeric variables are referenced the same way, right? Well, that depends on how the numeric variable is defined in the PROC REPORT DEFINE statement. Before we can explore more about the how a numeric variable is defined, we first need to understand some PROC REPORT basics. Then we will explore the many ways a numeric variable 1 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued can be defined in the DEFINE statement and how that definition determines the manner in which the variable is referenced in a COMPUTE bl ock.In the PROC REPORT statement, the input data set is listed using the option DATA= . If the DATA= option is not specified, PROC REPORT will use the last data set that was created in the current SAS session. The input data set contains variables and observations. The variables are categorized as either character or numeric— that is it, character or numeric. PROC REPORT does not use all of the variables from the input data set. Only the input data set variables that are listed in the COLUMN statement or in the BY statement are used.All of the report items, including the variables from the input data set that are listed in the COLUMN statement can be used in a COMPUTE block. Each report item in the COLUMN statement has an associated DEFINE statement. If a DEFINE statement for the report item is not supplied, PROC REPORT will create a default DEFINE statement behind the scenes. If a COLUMN statement is not specified, PROC REPORT will create a COLUMN statement behind the scenes . The COLUMN statement will contain only the variables from the input data set in the order of the data set.DEFINE statements can be supplied without a supplied COLUMN statement. The minimum statements that are needed to run PROC REPORT are a PROC REPORT statement with an input data set and a RUN statement. Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT will create all the necessary minimum default statements. To see the default statements, add the LIST option in the PROC REPORT statement. The LIST option will produce the basic code, including all of the DEFINE statements, in the SAS log. The NOWD option enables the report to run in the non-windowing mode.Here is an example of PROC REPORT code with the LIST option: proc report data=sashelp. class nowd list; run; The SAS log is shown in Output 1. Output 1. SAS Log Output By default, the DEFINE statement for a numeric input data set variable that is listed in the COLUMN statement will be associated with the SUM statistic. An alias for the SUM statist ic is ANALYSIS. The SUM statistic is the most common statistic that is used in PROC REPORT code. The SUM statistic can be replaced with any valid PROC REPORT statistic such as MIN or MEAN.At BREAK and RBREAK rows, the numeric input data set variable with an associated statistic will consolidate automatically based on the associated statistic. When a numeric input data set variable with an associated statistic is referenced in a COMPUTE block, the form of the variable-name. statistic is used. In a COMPUTE block, if a numeric input data set variable name is used without the corresponding statistic (which is the statistic listed in the DEFINE statement), a note might be written to the SAS log. The following code will produce a note in the SAS log: roc report nowd data=sashelp. class; col age height weight total; define age / group; define height–weight/ mean; define total / computed; compute total; total=height. mean/weight; endcomp; run; 2 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the S ecrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued In the preceding code, the DEFINE statement for the WEIGHT variable lists MEAN as the statistic. The calculation in the COMPUTE TOTAL block for the TOTAL COMPUTED variable shows the WEIGHT variable without the statistic of MEAN.PROC REPORT requires this statistic and does not recognize the WEIGHT variable. A note, such as the following, is produced in the SAS log: NOTE: Variable weight is uninitialized. PROC REPORT allows duplication of report items in the COLUMN statement. This duplicated report item becomes an alias. When an alias of the numeric input data set variable is referenced in a COMPUTE block, the alias name is used without the associated statistic. Behind the scenes, any duplication of the same variable or statistic in the COLUMN statement will be associated with an alias name.If an alias name is not specified, PROC REPORT will create one. To see the assigned alias name, add the LIST opt ion to the PROC REPORT statement and review the SAS log for the code. Using the preceding code in this section, the HEIGHT variable is duplicated in the COLUMN statement as follows: col age height height weight total; The resulting SAS log is shown in Output 2. Output 2. SAS Log Output Showing an Alias Name of _A1 Assigned behind the Scenes When the numeric input data set variable with an associated statistic is associated with an across variable, the column number, in the form of Cn_, is used in a COMPUTE block. In the form of _Cn_, n is the column number. The position of the columns shown in the output report is based on the left-to-right placement of the report-items in the COLUMN statement. For example, if a numeric variable with an associated statistic is placed as the first column under the ACROSS grouping but it is the second column in the output report, _C2_ is the correct value to use in a COMPUTE block. Behind the scenes, all columns are considered to have a column number even if the column is not printed in the final output report.Here is an example COLUMN statement: col sex age, (weight height); In this column statement, the first value of the WEIGHT variable is in the second column in the report. AGE is an across variable and is not counted as a column. The first column of the WEIGHT variable is associated with the first value of AGE and is referenced in a COMPUTE block as _C2_. The next column of the WEIGHT variable that is associated with the second value of AGE is referenced in a COMPUTE block as _C4_. Each unique value of the across variable becomes a header.Under each ACROSS header are the columns of variables that are associated with each unique across variable value. Each variable associated with an across variable becomes a column under the unique variable value. The number of unique values of an across variable controls the number of columns that are created for a variable associated with the across variable from the COLUMN statement. Beh ind the scenes, PROC REPORT has to know the specific column placement of a variable that is referenced in a COMPUTE block. The _Cn_ is used instead of the variable-name. statistic, the alias name, or the variable name. PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued The following example code shows this concept: proc report nowd data=sashelp. class list; col age sex, (weight height total); define age / group; define sex / across; define height–weight/ sum format=8. 2; define total / computed format=8. 2; compute total; _c4_=_c2_/_c3_; _c7_=_c5_/_c6_; endcomp; run; The COMPUTE TOTAL block shows two assignment statements. Each assignment corresponds to a column of WEIGHT, HEIGHT, and TOTAL for each unique value of the across variable SEX.The resulting output is shown in Output 3. Output 3. Output Using _Cn_ in the COMPUTE TOTAL Calculations A numeric input data set variable can also be defined as DISPLAY , GROUP, ORDER, or COMPUTED. Because there is no statistic associated with these definitions, the numeric input data set variable name is used in a COMPUTE block. Regardless of the definition, the numeric report-item can still be used in any computation. However, for GROUP or ORDER definitions, behind the scenes the values are evaluated from the printed output report instead of the input data.This means that if the ORDER or GROUP defined variable for a particular row and column shows as a blank on the printed output report, a blank is the value that will be used for any computation or evaluation. The following code shows three different methods for assigning the value of the ORDER variable AGE to a COMPUTED variable. proc report nowd data=sashelp. class; col age newage1 newage2 newage3; define age / order; define newage1 / computed; define newage2 / computed; define newage3 / computed; /* method 1 */ compute newage1; newage1=age*1. 5; endcomp; /* method 2 */ ompute newage2; if age n e . then hold_age=age; newage2=hold_age*1. 5; endcomp; /* method 3 */ compute before age; before_age=age; endcomp; compute newage3; newage3=before_age*1. 5; endcomp; run; 4 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued In the first method, the value for NEWAGE1 will contain a value only when AGE has a value for the same row. In the second method, the value of NEWAGE2 will contain a value for every row because it is obtaining a value from the DATA step variable HOLD_AGE.In the third method, the value of NEWAGE3 will contain a value for every row because it is obtaining a value from the DATA step variable BEFORE_AGE. The DATA step variable is created in the COMPUTE BEFORE AGE block. Behind the scenes, a DATA step variable changes values only through the code instructions. Also, behind the scenes, GROUP and ORDER numeric input data set variables are internally set to a blank in the printed output report at the RBREAK level. A COMPUTE AFTER block with an assignment statement for a numeric GROUP or ORDER variable at the RBREAK level will be ignored.A DISPLAY is always set to a blank at the BREAK and RBREAK levels. If you are routing the report output to an ODS destination, using a COMPUTE block CALL DEFINE statement with the STYLE attribute name and a style option that will accept text, such as PRETEXT=, is a way to override the blank values. A COLUMN STATEMENT VARIABLE VERSUS A DATA STEP VARIABLE PROC REPORT creates a column type of output report based on the variables and statistics listed in the COLUMN statement. Any variable from the input data set that is to be used as a report column or used in a COMPUTE block has to be listed in the COLUMN statement.The placement of the report items, variables, and statistics in the COLUMN statement is very important. PROC REPORT reads and processes the report items from the COLUMN statement in a left-to-right, top-to-bottom direction. Until the rep ort item is processed, it will be initialized to missing for numeric variables and blank for character variables. Once the entire COLUMN statement report-items are processed for a row, PROC REPORT reinitializes all of the report-items back to missing for numeric and blank for character variables.Then PROC REPORT begins the process all over again for the next row of data by processing the report items in the COLUMN statement in a left-to-right direction. Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT consolidates all the input data set variables and statistics listed in the COLUMN statements for the execution of RBREAK BEFORE and BREAK BEFORE statements. For example, the RBREAK, meaning the report break, in the following code is calculated first: proc report nowd data=sashelp. class; col sex age,(height weight); define age / group; define height / min format=8. 2 ‘Height min'; efine weight / max format=8. 2 ‘Weight max'; rbreak before / summarize; run; The output is shown in Output 4. Ou tput 4. PROC REPORT Output Showing the RBREAK Values COMPUTE blocks are also sensitive to the placement of the variables and statistics in the COLUMN statement. As PROC REPORT processes the report-items in a left-to-right direction, any associated COMPUTE blocks are also processed in the same order. This means that in a COMPUTE block that is based on a COLUMN statement reportitem, any referenced variable or statistic to the right of the COMPUTE block variable is missing.Simply put, PROC REPORT does not know about any report-item that is to the right of the COMPUTE block variable in the COLUMN statement. A DATA step variable, also referred to as a temporary variable, is different from the COLUMN statement variable. A DATA step variable is created and used in a COMPUTE block. It is not part of the COLUMN statement. The value of the DATA step variable comes directly from the code in a COMPUTE block. DATA step variables are often used in IF statements when there is a comparison of the c urrent row value to that of the value in the DATA step variable.PROC REPORT recomputes a COMPUTED variable value at every row, including at the BREAK and RBREAK rows. Values are not accumulated. An accumulated value can be calculated quickly using a DATA step variable in a 5 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued COMPUTE block because the value changes through the code only. Behind the scenes, DATA step variables used to accumulate values also include values at the BREAK and RBREAK levels. Adding an IF statement to check the value of the _BREAK_ automatic variable will help control when the accumulations takes place.In the following code, the computed variable TOTAL_AGE is the sum of two variables from the COLUMN statement. ACCUM_AGE is the accumulated value of AGE stored in the DATA step variable TEMP_AGE. proc report nowd data=sashelp. class; col age total_age accum_age height weight; define age / group; define height / min format=8. 2 ‘Height min'; define weight / max format=8. 2 ‘Weight max'; define total_age / computed; define accum_age / computed; compute total_age; if _break_ eq ‘ ‘ then total_age+age; endcomp; compute accum_age; if _break_ eq ‘ ‘ then temp_age+age; accum_age=temp_age; endcomp; break after / summarize; run; The output is shown in Output 5. Output 5. Comparison of the TOTAL_AGE Column and the ACCUM_AGE Column Notice the difference between the TOTAL_AGE column and the ACCUM_AGE column in Output 5. The TOTAL_AGE and AGE values are reinitialized for every row so that the values are not accumulated. The ACCUM_AGE and AGE values are reinitialized for every row but the TEMP_AGE value is not. TEMP_AGE is a DATA step variable and is not listed in the COLUMN statement. The result is an accumulated column for ACCUM_AGE. The _BREAK_ automatic variable will be blank for detail rows.A quick way to determine the value of a _BREAK_ va riable value is to create an output data set with the OUT= option in the PROC REPORT statement and examine the _BREAK_ values in the output data set. DISCOVERING WAYS TO MOVE COLUMN HEADERS By default, the column heading values come from the label in the DEFINE statement. If you do not specifically specify a label in your code either in the DEFINE statement or through a LABEL statement, add the LIST option to the PROC REPORT statement, submit your code, and look at the code that is created in the SAS log.Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT will generate the default values it needs to create the output report. One of the default values is the label specified in the DEFINE statement. All of the column headings from the label option in the DEFINE statement span over a single column with one exception, variables that are defined as across variables. A column heading for an across variable can span over multiple columns. In the COLUMN statement, a comma after the across variable indicates whi ch variable or group of variables are associated with the across variable.An example of PROC REPORT code containing an across variable is shown below: 6 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued title ‘Default Column Headers'; proc report nowd data=sashelp. shoes; column Region Product,Sales; define Region / group format= $25. â€Å"Region†; define Product / across format= $14. â€Å"Product†; define Sales / sum format= DOLLAR12. â€Å"Total Sales†; run; Output 6 shows the PROC REPORT example output. Output 6.Default Column Heading with an Across Label Spanning over Multiple Columns Behind the scenes, each unique value of an across variable is transposed from a column to a row. The row data is not available for any further processing within the code as it now becomes a column heading. In Output 6, each value of Product becomes a column with the Product value as the column head ing. Under each Product column heading value is the Sales variable column heading and data for the particular Product value. The heading label Total Sales for every column is redundant.The output report would look better if Total Sales were removed from under the Product column heading and placed above the Product column headings. PROC REPORT provides a way to add column heading information that can span over multiple columns by using a SPANNED HEADER. The SPANNED HEADER is used in the COLUMN statement in this way: column (‘spanned header text' variable-list)†¦; The following example code shows three different methods for using the DEFINE statement and SPANNED HEADERS for creating the column heading: proc report nowd data=sashelp. shoes split='*'; olumn region (‘(1)Total Sales' ‘(1)Product' ‘(2)Total Sales*(2)Product' product, sales); define region / group format= $25. â€Å"Region†; define product / across format= $14. â€Å"(3)Total Sales† â€Å"(3)Product† ; define sales / sum format=DOLLAR12. † † ; run; You can mix and match the methods. There is no best practice for using each method. The method that you choose depends on the look that you want for the column heading. The output is shown in Output 7. 7 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued Output 7. Moved Column Headings from Different MethodsThe three different methods are numbered in the example code and the output shown in Output 7: method (1) uses multiple SPANNED HEADER text; method (2) uses SPANNED HEADER text with the PROC REPORT SPLIT= character of * to force the text to continue on the next row; method (3) uses multiple labels in the DEFINE statement (you can also use a split character here). Let’s choose method (1) for the column heading and move the column heading to the top row. You can remove the label from the DEFINE statement by replacing the Region text with a blank â€Å" â€Å" and moving the Region text to a SPANNED HEADER in the COLUMN statement.There are three rows of headers. This means that the text of Region will need to be pushed up to the top row. You can do this by adding blank SPANNED HEADER text after the Region text in the COLUMN statement. Here is the modified PROC REPORT code with method (1) and the column heading text of Region: proc report nowd data=sashelp. shoes split='*'; column (‘Region' ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ Region) (‘Total Sales' ‘Product' Product , Sales); define Region / group format= $25. † † ; define Product / across format= $14. † † ; define Sales / sum format=DOLLAR12. † † ; run; Output 8 shows the output. Output 8.Moving Column Headings Using Blank SPANNED HEADERS Behind the scenes, when there is a blank header row and the output is routed to an ODS destination, the blank row is removed automatically. Thi s does not affect the LISTING output. If you want to preserve the blank row, change the blank label on one of the DEFINE statements that is not an across variable to some value. Then add a style 8 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued statement for the header, assigning the foreground color to the background color.For example, if your column heading background is purple, then the style statement for the DEFINE statement would look something like this: style(header)=[background=purple foreground=purple] With the background and the foreground assigned to the same color, any text in the label will blend into the background color. CHANGING DEFAULT ATTRIBUTES WITH STYLES Beginning with SAS 9. 3, the default output destination is HTML. Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT is using the HTMLBLUE style. All the output in this paper all uses this default destination. What if you are not fond of the HTMLBLUE style?T hen, what do you do if you want to change the default style of your output report? If you want to change the style of HTMLBLUE to another style that is supplied in the Sashelp. Tmplmst template store, you can run the following code to create a list of all the styles that are available: proc template; list styles; run; You can apply the styles by adding an ODS statement with the specified style before the PROC REPORT statement. For example, if you want to use the FESTIVAL style instead of the default HTMLBLUE style, the ODS statement would look similar to this: ods html style=festival;PROC REPORT also provides the ability to change the styles of the different report locations. Here are the style location values and a description for each that indicates which part of the report is affected: ? ? ? ? ? ? REPORT—the report as a whole HEADER|HDR—the column headings COLUMN—the column cells LINES—the lines generated by LINE statements SUMMARY—the summary r ows created from BREAK and RBREAK statements CALLDEF—the cells identified by a CALL DEFINE statement All of the style locations are valid in the PROC REPORT statement. These styles apply to the entire location that is specified.The style locations can also be combined if the same attribute is being applied to multiple locations. This is the correct syntax: style= The following code shows how to apply the styles in the PROC REPORT statement: ods html style=festival; title ‘Styles on the PROC REPORT statement'; proc report nowd data=sashelp. class(obs=5) split='*' style(report)=[outputwidth=7in] style(column)=[background=lavender] style(header)=[foreground=green] style(summary)=[background=purple foreground=white] style(lines)=[background=lime] style(calldef)=[background=yellow foreground=black]; olumn name age sex weight height; define name / display; define age / order; define sex / display; define height–weight / sum; break after age / summarize; rbreak after / summarize; compute before; line ‘this is the beginning'; endcomp; 9 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued compute age; if _break_ ne ‘ ‘ then call define(‘age','style','style=[pretext=†total†]'); endcomp; run; The STYLE options in the preceding PROC REPORT statement are formatting the output in this way: ? ? ? style(report) sets the report output width to 7 inches. style(column) sets the background for all of the columns to lavender. style(header) applies a green foreground to all of the headers. style(summary) sets all of the summary rows created from BREAK and RBREAK statements with a ? ? style(lines) sets the line statements to a background of lime. style(calldef) sets the foreground to black and background to yellow for the CALL DEFINE locations. background of purple and a foreground of white. The resulting report output is shown in Output 9.Output 9. Changing Default Styles in the PROC REPORT Statement The DEFINE statement supports two types of styles: STYLE(COLUMN) and STYLE(HEADER). STYLE(COLUMN) applies to the entire column but will not override any styles that are applied to other locations in the column. Using the same code in this section, you can modify the DEFINE statement for the NAME variable that creates the Name column like this: define name / display style(column header)=[background=plum]; The background of the HEADER and COLUMN locations for the NAME variable is set to plum.Because styles were applied already to the SUMMARY location, only the header and detail cells for the NAME column are changed to plum. A CALL DEFINE statement is used to override the SUMMARY style for the NAME column. The CALL DEFINE statement is discussed more in the next section. Output 10 is the resulting report output. Output 10. Changing the Default Styles for the NAME Column Using a DEFINE Statement 10 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued The BREAK and RBREAK statements support style changes for summary lines, customized lines, or both.A summary line is created from the BREAK or RBREAK statements. A customized line is created from a LINE statement within a COMPUTE BEFORE or a COMPUTE AFTER COMPUTE block. The is a break-variable that is defined as either GROUP or ORDER or the _PAGE_ location. A style on the BREAK and RBREAK statements will not override a cell style that is created by a CALL DEFINE statement or the STYLE(CALLDEF) option in the PROC REPORT statement. A CALL DEFINE statement will be used to make the style changes in this case. Using the same code in this section, you can modify the RBREAK statement like this: break after / summarize style=[background=pink foreground=black font_weight=bold]; The COMPUTE BEFORE or a COMPUTE AFTER supports a style option in the COMPUTE statement. A forward slash ‘/’ precedes the style option in the COMPUTE statement. The style option only applies to the LINE statement and will override any previous STYLE(LINES) requests. The style applies to all of the LINE statements within the COMPUTE block. Using the code from this section, a COMPUTE AFTER AGE block is added to show a style modification to the foreground of the LINE statement output. ompute after age/ style=[foreground=red]; line ‘ this is after age'; endcomp; A CALL DEFINE is a statement within a COMPUTE block. To change a style using a CALL DEFINE statement, the STYLE attribute is specified for the attribute-name and the style option is specified as the value. The following is the syntax for a CALL DEFINE statement: call define (column-id | _ROW_ , ‘attribute-name', value); Here is the code with all of the style modifications: ods html style=festival; title ‘Changing Default Attributes with Styles'; proc report nowd data=sashelp. lass(obs=5) split='*' style(report)=[outputwidth=7in] style( column)=[background=lavender] style(header)=[foreground=green] style(summary)=[background=purple foreground=white] style(lines)=[background=lime] style(calldef)=[background=yellow foreground=black]; column name age sex weight height; define name / display style(column header)=[background=plum]; define age / order; define sex / display; define height–weight / sum; break after age / summarize; rbreak after / summarize style=[background=pink foreground=black font_weight=bold]; ompute before; line ‘this is the beginning'; endcomp; compute age; if _break_ ne ‘ ‘ then call define(‘age','style','style=[pretext=†total†]'); endcomp; compute after age/ style=[foreground=red]; line ‘ this is after age'; endcomp; run; The updated output is shown in Output 11. 11 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued Output 11. Final Report Output with Changes to Default Attribute s Using Style Options You also can change styles by using inline formatting.Inline formatting is a feature of the Output Delivery System that enables you to insert simple formatting text into ODS output by using the ODS ESCAPECHAR statement. For example, here is a TITLE statement and the resulting output: title ‘This is ^{style [color=red font_weight=bold] RED}'; This is RED The inline formatting in the TITLE statement changes the text of RED to the color of red. The caret (^) in the TITLE statement is the declared ODS ESCAPECHAR. The ODS ESCAPECHAR statement has to be submitted before any inline formatting will take place.The caret (^) can be any unique character that would not normally be in your code. USING THE CALL DEFINE STATEMENT The previous section discussed using the CALL DEFINE statement as a way to change a style by specifying the STYLE attribute for the attribute-name and the STYLE= option for the value. As mentioned earlier, this is the syntax for the CALL DEFINE statement: call define (column-id | _ROW_ , ‘attribute-name', value); The column-id is the column name or the column number. The column-id can be specified as one of the following: ? ? ? ? ? ? a character literal (in quotation marks) that is the column name a character xpression that resolves to the column name a numeric literal that is the column number a numeric expression that resolves to the column number a name of the form _Cn_, where n is the column number the automatic variable _COL_, which identifies the column that contains the report-item to which the compute block is attached _ROW_ is an automatic variable that indicates that the value is to be applied to the entire row. Currently, the _ROW_ variable is applicable only with the STYLE attribute name. Behind the scenes, all of the COLUMN statement report-items are used to create the report.The columns created from the COLUMN statement report-items are placed in the same order, left to right. Each created column has a column number, beginning with ‘1’ for the left-most column on the report. All report-items have a column number, even if there are NOZERO, NOPRINT, and COMPLETECOLS options specified, because these options are applied after the report is created in memory. The following code shows the column number: 12 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued data test; nput type $ color $ counter; cards; aaa purple 1 aaa orange 1 bbb purple 2 ccc orange 2 ; run; proc report nowd data=test missing ; col counter type,color,counter=num; define counter / group ‘ ‘; define type / across ‘ ‘; define color / across ‘ ‘; define num / sum ‘ ‘ nozero; compute num; call define(4,'style','style=[background=purple]'); endcomp; run; Output 12 shows the output. Output12. PROC REPORT Output with the Incorrect Column Number Used in a CALL DEFINE Statement In the code above, the CALL DEFINE statement applies a purple background to the fourth column.There is a NOZERO option in the DEFINE statement for NUM, which instructs the report to not print that column if all the column values are zero or missing. By adding the SHOWALL option to the PROC REPORT statement and resubmitting the code, the resulting output in Output 13 shows the fourth column with a purple background. The SHOWALL option displays all of the NOPRINT option and NOZERO option columns in the output report. This option, with the LIST option, is good to use when debugging PROC REPORT code. proc report nowd data=test missing showall; Output 13.Resulting Output When the SHOWALL Option Is Applied to the PROC REPORT Statement If the intention is to change the background of the fourth column that is shown in Output 13, then here is the correct CALL DEFINE statement: call define(5,'style','style=[background=purple]'); There is no limit to the number of CALL DEFINE statements that can be used in a COM PUTE block. If there are duplicate styles that need to be applied to different cells, you might want to consider consolidating the CALL DEFINE statements. Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT calls on the SAS DATA step compiler when a COMPUTE block is used.Most of the SAS DATA step code functionally is available to you when you create code for a COMPUTE block. One consolidation technique is to use a DO loop with a CALL DEFINE to loop through the column number to apply a style. Using the code in this section, here is a modification to the COMPUTE NUM block: 13 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued compute num; call define(_row_,'style','style=[background=wheat]'); do purple_column= 3 to 5 by 2; call define(purple_column,'style','style=[background=purple foreground=white font_weight=bold]'); end; ndcomp; The output is shown in Output 14. Output 14. Output Using Modified Code from the COMPUTE NUM Block We ha ve seen examples of using the attribute name of STYLE. There are other attribute names that can be used. For example, if you want to make the contents of each cell a link to a specified Uniform Resource Locator (URL), you can use the URL attribute as the attribute-name and the link as the value. Before ODS, and yes, there was a time before ODS, there was the Output Window (known now as the LISTING destination). The only attribute that is specified in a CALL DEFINE statement for use in the Output Window is the  ®FORMAT attribute. Once ODS was introduced in SAS 7, the ability to use the FORMAT attribute included all output destinations. _ROW_ cannot be used when the FORMAT attribute name is specified in the CALL DEFINE statement. The best use of the FORMAT attribute can be illustrated by using the output from a PROC MEANS using the default statistics. The following PROC MEANS code creates an output data set and a PROC PRINT to print the output: proc means data=sashelp. class nway; w here age=15; class age; var weight height; output out=means_output; run; proc print; run; The output is shown in Output 15.Output 15. PROC PRINT Output In looking at the output in Output 15, it really does not make sense for the N statistic for the WEIGHT and HEIGHT variables to have decimals. PROC REPORT allows an easy way to change the format for these two cells by using the CALL DEFINE statement within a COMPUTE block. The following PROC REPORT shows the CALL DEFINE with the FORMAT attribute. 14 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued proc report nowd data=means_output; col age _stat_ weight height; define age / order; efine _stat_ / display; define weight / sum format=8. 2; define height / sum format=8. 2; compute height; if _stat_='N' then do; call define(‘Weight. sum','format','8. ‘); call define(‘Height. sum','format','8. ‘); end; endcomp; run; The results are shown in O utput 16. Output 16. PROC REPORT Output with a Cell Format Change The first row under the headers in Output 16 shows the N statistic for both the WEIGHT and HEIGHT columns without decimals. Any time there is a need to change the format of a cell within a column, the CALL DEFINE with the FORMAT attribute is the best method to use.The other choice would be to create a computed character variable version of the value with the desired format. But what fun would that be? EXPLORING MULTILABEL FORMATTING TO CREATE SUBGROUP COMBINATIONS You might be asking yourself, what is multilabel formatting? Admittedly, the concept of multilabel formatting baffled me at first. I knew other procedures such as PROC TABULATE and PROC MEANS worked with multilabel formatting, and therefore could not envision it with PROC REPORT. Multilabel formatting enables PROC REPORT to use a format label or labels for a given range or overlapping ranges to create a combination of subgroups.The multilabel formats are app lied to either group or across variables. It was not until I had a scenario where I needed to create a report with various subgroupings that I began to appreciate using multilabel formatting. Unfortunately, because multilabel formatting was not available for PROC REPORT in the version of SAS that I was using, my only choice was to slice and dice the data prior to the PROC REPORT step. Multilabel formatting is new for PROC REPORT in SAS 9. 3. The multilabel format is created with PROC FORMAT. The option of multilabel within parentheses is applied to the VALUE statement after the format name.A syntax error, such as the following, will occur in the SAS log if the multilabel option is added without the parentheses: ERROR 22-322: Syntax error, expecting one of the following: a quoted string, a numeric constant, a datetime constant, a missing value, ;, (, LOW, OTHER. ERROR 202-322: The option or parameter is not recognized and will be ignored. If there are overlapping ranges on the labels of the VALUE statement, error messages such as the following will be created in the SAS log for each overlapping range: ERROR: These two ranges overlap: LOW-16 and 11-13 (fuzz=1E-12).ERROR: These two ranges overlap: 11-14 and 11-15 (fuzz=1E-12). In the following example PROC FORMAT code, the multilabel option within parentheses is listed after the format name of AGEFMT in the VALUE statement: 15 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued proc format; value agefmt (multilabel) 11-13 =' 11 to 13†² 11-14 =' 11 to 14†² 11-15 =' 11 to 15†² 11-high ='11 and above' low-16 ='16 and below' ; run; You might have noticed that some of the labels contain leading blanks.Behind the scenes, PROC REPORT applies the format before creating groups and the formatted values are used for ordering. Without the leading spaces, the category of ‘11 and above’ will be the first group printed because an ‘a’ in ‘and’ precedes a ‘t’ in ‘to’ for an ascending ordering schema. Adding leading spaces is a way to ensure the desired grouping order. In the example PROC REPORT code below, AGEFMT format is added to the DEFINE AGE statement. Notice that there is also the option of MLF. The MLF option is required when multilabel formatting is desired. itle â€Å"Multilabel Formatting†; proc report data=sashelp. class nowd; col sex age (‘Mean' height weight); define sex / group; define age / group mlf format=agefmt. ‘Age Groups'; define height / mean format=6. 2 ‘Height (in. )'; define weight / mean format=6. 2 ‘Weight (lbs. )'; rbreak after / summarize; run; The output is shown below in Output 17. Output 17. Multilabel Formatting HTML Output The multilabel formatting is applied only to a group or across variable. If you try to apply the MLF option to any other definition, a warning message will be produced.For exa mple, if the group variable is changed to an order variable for the DEFINE AGE statement, the SAS log will show the following warning: WARNING: The MLF option is valid only with GROUP and ACROSS variables. MLF will have no effect for the variable age. If you need to create a detailed report instead of a summary report, you can change any other group variable to an order variable or add an order variable. For example, using the code in this section, if the DEFINE SEX/GROUP is changed to DEFINE SEX/ORDER, a detailed report showing a row for every observation from the input data set will be produced. 16PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets behind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued DID YOU KNOW†¦ Now that you know the behind-the-scenes secrets of PROC REPORT, here are some other little-known facts of interest. Did you know that PROC REPORT started out as an interactive windowing product and the interactive window is the default environment ? Are you not sure what an interactive window is? Most of us have accidentally invoked PROC REPORT code without the NOWD, NOWINDOWS, or the NOFS option and end up in an unfamiliar window. This unfamiliar window is actually the REPORT window.Here is sample PROC REPORT code that invokes the REPORT window: proc report data=sashelp. class; run; The REPORT window is shown in Display 1. Display 1. The REPORT Window Showing PROC REPORT Code In fact, the REPORT window can be found in different places of SAS. For example, the Report Editor under the Tools menu and the Design Report selection under Reporting in the Solutions menu item both invoke the REPORT window. Entering TREPORT in the command line box will also invoke the REPORT WINDOW. For anyone new to PROC REPORT, using the report in the window mode is a wonderful way to quickly create an immediate report.The code can be found in the Report Statements selection located in the Tools menu from the REPORT window. For experienced PROC REPO RT coders, using the REPORT window to create the code saves time typing. Make sure that the NOWD option is added to the PROC REPORT statement when you are running in an editor. As new options are added to PROC REPORT, most of them will also work in the windowing mode. The exception is with ODS. The windowing mode of PROC REPORT does not support any of the ODS functionality. So check it out!  ®  ® Also, did you know that for SAS Enterprise Guide users, there is a wizard that uses PROC REPORT behind the scenes?It is called the List Report wizard. You can invoke the List Report window through the Describe selection under the Tasks menu item. The List Report wizard was designed for the user who has little to no SAS or PROC REPORT experience. Only the underlying code reveals that PROC REPORT was used behind the scenes. Display 2 shows the SAS Enterprise Guide List Report wizard. Display 2. The SAS Enterprise Guide List Report Wizard 17 PROC REPORT Unwrapped: Exploring the Secrets beh ind One of the Most Popular Procedures in Base SAS ® Software, continued CONCLUSIONSo there you have it. We have discovered the secrets behind how PROC REPORT is made by exploring a numeric variable in a COMPUTE block, the difference between an input data set variable and a DATA step variable, and ways to move column headings, change attributes with styles, use the CALL DEFINE statement, and explore the multilabel formatting. We dug deep into example code and even unwrapped some of the little known facts about PROC REPORT. That is all the time we have and thank you for taking part in PROC REPORT Unwrapped! RECOMMENDED READING Booth, Allison McMahill. 2011. Beyond the Basics: Advanced PROC REPORT Tips and Tricks Updated for SAS ® 9. 2. † Proceedings of the SAS Global Forum 2012 Conference. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/resources/papers/proceedings11/246-2011. pdf. Booth, Allison McMahill. 2010. â€Å"Evolve from a Carpenter’s Apprentice to a Master Woodworker: Creating a Plan for Your Reports and Avoiding Common Pitfalls in REPORT Procedure Coding. † Proceedings of the SAS Global Forum 2010 Conference. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/resources/papers/proceedings10/1332010. pdf.Booth, Allison McMahill. 2007. â€Å"Beyond the Basics: Advanced PROC REPORT Tips and Tricks. † Proceedings of the SAS Global Forum 2007 Conference. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/rnd/papers/sgf07/sgf2007-report. pdf. SAS Institute Inc. 2012. â€Å"Find Your Answer in the SAS Knowledge Base. † SAS Customer Support Web Site. Available at support. sas. com/resources/.  ® SAS Institute Inc. 2012. â€Å"REPORT Procedure. † Base SAS 9. 3 Procedures Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/documentation/cdl/en/proc/63079/HTML/default/viewer. tm#p0bqogcics9o4xn17yvt2qjbgdpi. htm. SAS Institute Inc. 2012. â€Å"REPORT Procedure Windows. à ¢â‚¬  Base SAS ® 9. 3 Procedures Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/documentation/cdl/en/proc/63079/HTML/default/viewer. htm#p10d8v5dnafqb9n1p35e7kp9q67e. htm. SAS Institute Inc. 2008. â€Å"The REPORT Procedure: Getting Started with the Basics. † Technical Paper. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/resources/papers/ProcReportBasics. pdf. SAS Institute Inc. 2008. â€Å"Using Style Elements in the REPORT and TABULATE Procedures. † Technical Paper.Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc. Available at support. sas. com/resources/papers/stylesinprocs. pdf. CONTACT INFORMATION Your comments and questions are valued and encouraged. Contact the author at: Allison McMahill Booth SAS Institute Inc. SAS Campus Drive Cary, NC 27513 E-mail: [email  protected] com Web: support. sas. com SAS and all other SAS Institute Inc. product or service names are registered trademarks or trademarks of SAS Institute Inc. in the USA and other coun tries.  ® indicates USA registration. Other brand and product names are trademarks of their respective companies. 18

Assessment: Management and Performance Monitoring Plan

Assessment Activity BSBMGT617A Develop and implement a business plan Assessment 120 Student ID: Type: Assignment Duration/Due: 4 weeks Name: Question # Question 1 You and your business partner have decided to open a small business marketing consultancy in Sydney's bustling Chinatown district, close to The Sydney Business and Travel Academy. Marks 60 You have borrowed $75,000 from the bank to get started, and have each contributed $20,000 in cash, for a total amount of $115,000.Initially, the two of you will be the only full-time employees, but you plan to employ more staff as the business grows. For this assessment you will need to develop two profesionally presented and detailed plans – the business plan, and the performance monitoring plan. The business plan should be detailed, practical and have the following sections as a minimum:  § Table of contents Company vision, mission, values and objectives  § Stakeholder consultation  § Market requirements and customer profil e  § Pricing strategy  § Resource requirements (financial, human and physical)  § Legislative requirements (local, state and federal)  § 30-day Start-up Action plan Your business performance monitoring plan will detail how you will monitor the performance of your startup business.It will need to include details of the key performance indicators you will use, financial management strategies (including target ratios), human resource performance monitoring, your plan for continuous improvement, and details of how the business plan will be amended and updated as required. A large part of this assignment involves research. The internet is not your only tool. Seek advice and assistance from your trainer, government bodies, associations and business owners where appropriate. All information sources must be acknowledged and referenced. Thursday, 6 October 2011 1/1

The Constitution creates a system that was designed to fail AND the Essay

The Constitution creates a system that was designed to fail AND the existence of a set of fundamental American values - Essay Example It also guaranteed a stronger horizontal separation of power amongst the executive, the legislature and the judiciary, thus improves institutional checks and balances while at the same time granting some autonomy to various government organs (Ellis 49). It also established the Supreme Court that would be the final arbiter in matters of law, therefore improving access to justice and resolving interstate, state-federal as well as well as conflict between the said entities and individuals. To this extent, the constitution was designed to achieve success. Even though the constitution had such praiseworthy aspects, the US creates enormously stronger federal government, with highly nationalized values. Therefore, resources get to be majorly centralized; as such the states become extremely subservient to the federal government (Wood 28).Basically all the prime sectors and taxes are in control of the federal governments. This is a weakness, since it is the states that are closer to the peopl e and therefore stand a better chance to respond faster to the need of the people, in comparison to the federal government (Ellis 49). The congress has on some occasions exercised its legislative power to pass laws that interfere with the processes already running in the states. For instance, in United States v. Morrison, pursuant to its powers under the Commerce Clause and the Fourth Amendment (Section 5), the Congress had enacted a statute, Violence against Women Act (VAWA) which provided civil remedies to gender –based violence victims against their assailants. This was based on argument that such injustices against women hindered their free participation in interstate commerce and thus a remedy was essential. The court struck down a part of this law since the law was not dealing with cases that were economic in nature. The congress had over stretched its powers under the constitution to interfere with state court, by offering a federal filing for such cases. VAWA dealt wi th a social issue (gender violence) and its economic impact on interstate Commerce was indirect and marginal. Similar scenario arose in United States v. Lopez, where the court pointed out that Commercial Clause could only be applied in cases that are directly economic in nature. United States v. Morrison defines the sensitive question of the relationship between the Congressional powers and the State powers, and in particular, the extent to which the congress may limit areas that are traditionally defined as being within the scope of the state. These decisions reveal judicial activisms in favor of state sovereignty at the expense of federalism and to strengthen the state power. The Existence of a Set of Fundamental American Values Values refer to the standards that have consciously or unconsciously set by members of a particular culture or society upon which the desirable and undesirable are distinguished behaviors (Dahrendorf 14). Values therefore form a basis for judging the peopl e and their actions, from a cultural approach, in order to determine whether they are good or bad, valuable or worthless, beautiful or ugly or whether they are prized or shunned. The values have a great role in shaping our actions and behaviour. For quite long, Americans have been known for their set of values, mostly the value of freedom and independence. This is reflected in a number of Constitutional Amendments that puts

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Consumer and decision making behaviour - Essay Example Hence, the concept of status consumption as a process of consuming goods and services by status conscious consumers has gained traction in recent years. Though status consumption was always a trend, the fact that the advent of the global village with its mass manufactured visions of happiness has meant that brands and products that they represent can have uses other than the basic need gratification for which they are made (O’Cass & McEwen, 2010). The paper looks at the concept of status consumption and how a marketer might be able to use status to market a product type or specific brand. To start with, there are many definitions of status consumption. For the purposes of this paper the following definition would be relevant: â€Å"Status consumption relates to the consumers’ behavior of seeking to purchase goods and services for the status they confer, regardless of that consumer’s objective income or social class† (Eastman et al., 1999; Bourdieu, 1989). It is worth noting that status consumption often involves expensive goods and services and that consumers use these goods and services on special occasions and events rather than on a regular basis. One reason for the proliferation of goods used as status symbols is because of the mass marketing techniques of marketers, many products have become commodities and hence consumers have an innate desire to consume goods and services that are perceived to be superior in value. This is the need that astute marketers tap into when marketing goods that they label as premium or exclusive. To take this poi nt a bit further, recent nomenclature in advertisements and marketing collateral for the so-called status products tends to highlight the â€Å"exclusivity† of a particular good or service and to connote that by consuming that good or service, the consumer is being conferred a special status in society (Turunen & Laaksonen, 2011). It has been noted by many researchers that status consumption

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Audit Committee Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Audit Committee - Essay Example It assists a business to achieve the aim through fetching methodical, closely controlled advance towards appraisal as well as develop efficiency of risk management, control, and governance processes. The Code of Ethics is essential as well as suitable in favour of the career of internal auditing, originated since it is resting on faith placed in its aim promise regarding governance, risk management, and control (Beattie & Fearnley, n.d.). The Codes of Ethics used by internal auditors is likely in the direction of affect as well as support the subsequent standards: These are the main objectives of ethics that are to be followed in every case for being in the area of code of ethics. Integrity Objectivity Confidentiality Competency Independence and External Part of Audit Committee The Audit Committee is answerable, used for making certain it analysis’s at least once a year the credentials, presentation and sovereignty of auditors. Also, the Audit Committee shall analysis a ceremo nial printed declaration clearing up every relation among The External Auditors as well as Parent Company as well as its subsidiary. The Audit Committee will sustain a dynamic discussion with the autonomous auditors, casing a few revealed relations or checks so as to might force their neutrality and sovereignty. The Audit Committee will evaluate every future take on by company or its subsidiary of administration point or senior persons previously working through the sovereign auditors who offered checks towards the corporation. The Audit Committee will get, or counsel The Board of Directors so as to it takes, suitable measures towards managing the sovereignty of company’s External Auditors. To have an efficient association among the Audit Committee and External Audit, here exists a system contained to assist a release as well as guileless trade of information among Committee Members as well as External Audit all the time. Audit Committee members must exist inside an arrangeme nt, talented to frankly talk about subjects of attention in a responsive way with External Auditors within several areas enclosed through the Committee’s function (Beattie & Fearnley, n.d.) External audit committee coverage The Audit Committee is supposed to be briefed on the projected External Audit reporting as well as completely believe on subsequent given terms by the company: the financial report regions of audit focus, appraisal of entity risks, as well as related fees; projected performance audit coverage; Some possible duplication among internal audit coverage. It can be predictable so as to the Audit Committee will evaluate every considerable association from External Audit about Intended Audit, Audit in development, accomplished audit, as well as widen a ranking incitement for the External Auditor to live there next to every committee summit meant for every schedule matter (by means of the omission of members-only gatherings so as to the Committee might grasp occasi onally). Present there on every summit as a witness permits the external auditor to get a improved perceptive of an organizations functions as well as dangers along with, between other belongings, allows external auditor to offer a standing information lying on Audit doings furthermore to present contribution in favor of the committee’s consideration (BPP, 2011). Question 2: Audit and

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Management report. It should critically evaluate the leadership and management processes within your own organisation or one th - Essay Example 468-469, 1998). This paper is an attempt to look at the leadership dynamics of a well-known leader Ricardo Semler, who is currently the CEO of Brazilian firm Semco SA. Ricardo Semler and his company are widely known for its principles of industrial and corporate democracy, participative management, innovative business management and corporate re-engineering. Born in 1959 at Sao Paula, Semler is one of biggest names of the corporate, business and academic arena of Brazil and all over the world. Semler has repeatedly been nominated as the top 100 global business leaders. In addition, â€Å"he was named as the Latin American Businessmen of the year in 1990 by the TIME magazine† (Antonakis, Cianciolo & Sternberg, pp. 41-49, 2004). Semler has is occasional lecturers to seminars and has received immense media attention. ‘World Economic Forum’ has also nominated Semler as Leaders of Tomorrow. He is the author of many business articles in Harvard Business Review and he ha s also written best sellers such as â€Å"The Seven Day Weekend: Changing the Way it Works† and â€Å"Turning Your Own Table† (Hamel & Breen, pp. 258-259, 2007). This paper would explore his business styles, leadership dynamics; compare the information available on him with the well-known leadership literature to draw certain conclusions and recommendations. Organisational Context Antonio Kurt Semler, an Austrian Born immigrant in Sao Paulo, established his little company with the name of â€Å"Semler & Company† in 1952 to sell his patented vegetable oil centrifuge (Patching, pp. 86-87, 2007). However, as the company grew, it diversified into the business of Mixer & Agitator and other supply materials for shipping and construction. However, Antonio Semler strongly believed in the autocratic and controlled style of leadership (Antonakis et. al, pp. 41-49, 2004). At that time, Semler was a tall and hierarchal organisation with many layers of management. Ricardo wa s the only son of the Semler family and therefore, Antonio wanted, right from the started, his son to take over the company after him (Sashkin & Sashkin, pp. 379-386, 2003). However, Semler was not interested in the family business. Despite the fact that he went to Harvard Business School for business studies, his interest was to join a Rock band, like the ones that were famous in the 1970s (Semler, pp. 3-6, 1989). However, on the insistence of his father, he took the position of Assistant to the Board of Directors. Even though, the job title suggests that young Semler had quite some authority over the business, the same was not true. He had disagreements over most of the issues with the other senior board of directors most of which were the â€Å"golf buddies† of his father (Tjosvold & Tjosvold, pp. 487-489, 1995). This frustration and disappointment grew so much that young Semler finally threatened his father to leave the company. As mentioned earlier that it was the dream of his father to see his son taking over the company. Therefore, after a few weeks, Antonio Semler took a decision, which surprised everyone. He himself went on a vacation to Europe, resigned from his post, and transferred all the power to his son, leaving Ricardo Semler as the incharge of the company (Semler, pp. 3-6, 1989). After taking over the company, he fired over 75 percent of the top and middle managers of the company and took the company into a new strategic direction of acquisitions and

Recruitment and Selection Policies Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Recruitment and Selection Policies - Case Study Example referral based, and for fresh positions via campus recruitments. The selection process is more rigorous and depending on the nature and intricacy of the job, competence of the staff involved in the selection, the costs and benefits associated with the position to be recruited for and most importantly, the time factor. The methods for selection includes just sorting through resumes, conducting tests to judge individual's or potential employee's aptitude, intelligence, trainability and personality, group discussion, interviews and also the assessment centers. Each will be elaborated in detail going forward. Some issues also emerge in the selection process, these will be discussed soon. As discussed earlier, recruitment process begins from identification of the need that the organization needs to fill in a certain vacancy up to the point where the organization receives the application forms or has to decide between whom to hire for the position. The firm has option to recruit either internally from within the firm or external sources. Hiring candidates from within the organization has its own advantages. Firstly, hiring from inside saves the organization considerable amount of money and time because individuals within the organization already has an idea regarding what the company is like, an in depth knowledge of its products and services and how a business functions overall. Thus, lesser investments might be required to develop the fit that is required; thus, saving potential time and the money that is required for training a completely new (external) recruit. More important, these internal promotions incentivize people to worker harder and move up the organizati onal ladder, they become more committed and work harder within the organization. Secondly, since a firm very well knows the individual's strengths and weaknesses as the person has served in the organization for quite some time, all the areas are pre-assessed; when in fact, hiring an outsider has risks attached to it and success might only be on the resume and not the person's practice itself. But, obviously, the advantages do not come alone; some of the disadvantages to the internal recruitment practices for the firm starts with replacing the position of the person which has been left vacant due to the promotion. Besides, hiring an outsider might bring in more diversification to the organization's skills, which might otherwise be limited because of phenomenon such as groupthink. As opposed to the internal recruitment, externally recruiting helps firms to hire people who are diversified in talent and in experience; but has its own disadvantage such as the firm may end up hiring someone who is ineffective and unsuitable for the organization. Selection Whereas, recruitment was a one way step, selection is a two way process of communication and establishment of a positive psychological contract; the sole aim being contacting and employing the best people for the job. The selection process results in either of the two outcomes, it either results in hiring of effective employees or rejection or exit of the non competent employees. The selection process is always faced by limitations such as validation, review and organizational constraints. For selection

British Literature Essay Example for Free

British Literature Essay Literature is one of the most effective ways to protest against the society, iniquities in this society. From early times writers and poets used rhythms and stories for ridiculing the upper class of a society. Why do poets use poems to tell about social injustices? The answer is simple. This way a poet can catch and hold the reader’s attention, his emotions. Usually poets in their works present facts in order to capture attention of many people. These are not new facts that are presented to an audience. From early times poets used the words effectively to make people think about the situation and make want them to act in order to change the present state of things. Poets and writers know the exact words and phrases that can influence people’s attitude to this or that situation so that they start acting. Poems are always aimed to reach feelings of people and thus, to pull strings. Literature of every state shows all the complexity of every epoch. When the situation is the same at several countries, it has a worldwide significance. Before talking about poetry, we should answer the question: What is poetry? Poetry is a special way of describing situations, things, ideas, feelings. Poets present their ideas in short phrases. They use rhythm to emphasize their feelings and ideas. Besides, a poet can appeal to reader’s emotions via poems. That is why a poem is easily remembered. A poem can be compared to a photograph as it reflects real life, real situations and feelings. In a poem a poet captures the exact moment and represents it the way he/she has seen it. When you read a poem you see the poet’s subjective evaluation of facts, situations and the epoch in general. Poets of Romantic Movement wrote their poems to share their feelings. They wrote to help people understand their time from the poet’s point of view. This paper is about Romantic Movement in Great Britain. It is devoted to William and Dorothy Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, William Blake, Robert Burns, Mary Wollstonecraft and Joanna Baillie who became a radical group in British literature of their epoch. In the paper special attention is paid to the use of lyric poetry (ballads) and blank verse in poetry of the nineteenth century. British poetry. â€Å"The poem on the page is only a shadow of the poem in the mind. And the poem in the mind is only a shadow of the poetry and the mystery of the things of this word.†    Stanley Kunitz Before analyzing the British poetry of the nineteenth century it is necessary to mention the changes in political, industrial, scientific and cultural spheres of life of that time and caused the changes in British literature having challenged the standards of form and structure in poetry. From 1776 the American and French Revolutions and later the Industrial Revolution astounded Great Britain and Europe and caused disturbances among people. In the second half of the century Charles Darwin published Origins of Species and The Descent of Man that caused the revolution in scientific thought. This was an unrest period and people were forced to evaluate their values and beliefs again. There is no wonder that the British poets changed their world outlook. The first stage of Romanticism in English literature began in 1790s. William Blake was the first major poet who reacted to these changes. His poems were far from standard patterns. The poetry of Blake is characterized by long, unrhymed lines, a steady interplay of opposites (Damrosch 458). A metaphor can be found in titles of Blake’s works. For instance, his series of poems: Songs of Innocence in 1789 and Songs of Experience in 1794; The Marriage of Heaven and Hell etc. Blake believed that opposites are integral parts of life. He wrote about things that we too often forget making the reader look at events from another point of view. Blake tried to use the joy of words. He used figurative language to describe things in an unusual, in a completely new way breaking down the traditions in poetry of his time. Blake’s beginnings were supported by the efforts of William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. They have written a collection of poems, anonymously authored, famous for its poems and its preface, entitled Lyrical Ballads in 1798. In the preface a poet deems that poems must regard ‘situations from life’ in ‘the everyday language’. Wordsworth describes poetry as ‘the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings’. This expression was the manifesto of the Romantic Movement in poetry presenting revolutionary idea for that time. Moreover, the poet emphasizes on the avoidance of artificial poetic style. He believes language must be understandable and enjoyable for ordinary people. Lyrical Ballads is one of the most significant books which became a major change in the history of English poetry (Damrosch 462). Poems from the collection are written in simple, everyday language. They are concentrated on the appreciation of the power of nature, examination of human personality, inner feelings, emotions and thought with an emphasis on imagination. Lyrical Ballads starts from Coleridge’s long poem Rime of the Ancient Mariner and continues with poems manifesting the nature appreciation, the superiority of emotions and feelings over reason. The romance emphasizes individuality, beauty of nature contrasting to formality and artificiality of the standards in poetry of that epoch. A collection contains Tintern Abbey, The Idiot Boy and other controversial poems of Wordsworth written in everyday language. Poets used an every day language before, thus, they did not use it so that they broke down the rules and standards. Samuel Taylor Coleridge is famous for marvelous The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and the ‘conversation poems’, for example, Frost at Midnight and This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison, as well as for his unfinished works Christabel and Kubla Khan, which is like an obsession that haunts your mind (Damrosch 466). Dorothy Wordsworth, William’s sister, is an English prose writer. Her famous Alfoxden Journal and invaluable Gramere Journals were published in 1897. Her works are full of imagination while describing nature and personalities of unusual qualities. Dorothy’s prose is sudden, clear and natural. You may disagree with her ideas or conclusions. However, the writer could possibly say that it is enough that a reader reflects on her ideas. William Wordsworth wrote many short poems which were aimed at breaking down neoclassical verse. He included new poems in the second edition of the collection – The Brothers and Michael. In his works the author tries to speak about life truthfully sharing his feelings with a reader. Sometimes they share ideas, sometimes – a question. These poems and marvelous lyrics were written in his great decade. Thus, the most famous poem of William Wordsworth is his autobiographical philosophical poem The Prelude. This is a spiritual autography in which the author puts questions of philosophical value, about the purpose of his existence, of his value as a poet. In this work William Wordsworth is the major hero. The author places imagination on the first place among human talents. This work is better to call an epic as it consists of 8000 lines and is separated into 14 books (Damrosch 471). It is necessary to mention Joanna Baillie, a poet and dramatist. She wrote plays in verse which were highly appreciated. However, she is famous largely for her first published work, a collection of lyrics Fugitive Verses in 1790. Another talented English writer is Mary Wollstonecraft. She is famous for her works about equality of women concerning education and social life. Mary Wollstonecraft was a member of a radical group together with William Blake and later William Wordsworth. All her life Mary Wollstonecraft remained a passionate defender of women rights. In her works she was bringing up a fulmination against social inequality of women. She wrote Thoughts on the Education of Daughters in 1787 and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which contains a fulmination and a plea concerning equality for women, in 1792. The second stage of Romanticism began in 1805 and was marked by appreciation of history value, attention to origins, to works of Renaissance time. One of the most noted poets of the second stage is George Gordon, Lord Byron. He put the poet in the central place and spoke about imagination in his works (Damrosch 458). Romantic Movement reached its high point of art in the works of Byron. In his poems he emphasizes the individual feelings, emotions of a person, not of several ones; expression of feeling opposes to morality and value of nature to a state. The works of Byron are unique and brilliant, his poetry is an outstanding event connected with the Epoch of Romanticism. When an artist puts paint on canvas, he/she attentively traces shapes and colours for attaining a needful effect. The same Byron does when he writes a poem – he arranges words so that a poem is simple and comprehensible. Byron uses language in unusual way: he chooses words for sound and meaning. He carefully selects and arranges each word to achieve the desirable sound and effect. His major hero is a romantic person who is out of the society. In his poems the author raises the question of immortality. Besides, his works are notable for their flippancy. In 1820s there was a third stage of Romanticism that spread romantic ideas in literature worldwide (Damrosch 458). Summarizing, the Romantic Movement in Britain has three stages; every of stages is famous for poets and their works. At this time poets broke with tradition and tried the relaxed rhythms, everyday language and imagination in their poems. Conclusion. The paper briefly analyzes the three stages of Romantic Movement in Great Britain in general and poets who contributed greatly to the poetry of their country in a more detailed way. Besides, the paper analyzes the peculiarities of literature of that epoch. Having examined the works of William and Dorothy Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, William Blake, Robert Burns, Mary Wollstonecraft and Joanna Baillie, it is clear it was a new generation of poets in the British literature. References: Damrosch D., Wolfson S. J., Manning P. J. (2005). The Longman Anthology of British Literature, Volume 2A: The Romantics and Their Contemporaries, Longman, 3rd Edition, 1120pp.

An analysis of the key factors that influence the levels of motivation

An analysis of the key factors that influence the levels of motivation The purpose of this study are the motivational factors that Shell Pakistan use to motivates its employees to work in different departments. I have taken five departments: Sales, Marketing, Finance, HR and Production department. As around 300 people work in Shell and to motivate them shell uses different motivational theories which may include Alderfers ERG Theory, McClellands Theory of Needs, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory. These are the following motivational factors that these departments practice continuously to motivate employees. Employee Appraisal Intrinsic Awards Employee Involvement Skill-based Pay Plans Flexible Benefits Benefits programme Training provision Time off and time out Our diverse global community Sports and social activities Listening to our employees After the analysis of complete survey we can conclude that employees of SHELL PAKISTAN enjoys different attributes of Motivation like they have Job Satisfaction as they believe they have personal and professional growth opportunities, they feel they have empowerment. They have very skillful, high-quality and superior working environment. They believe that their performance is appreciated will result in reward as SHELL PAKISTAN is having EDR system. The one thing that may be a cause of de-motivation is SHELL PAKISTAN does not offer tailored benefits. CORPORATE PROFILE Second Largest oil marketing company in Pakistan with an average turnover of over US$3.4 billion and market share of over 24% in black oil and 35% in white oil. Blue chip organization with market capitalization of around Rs. 44 billion {US$ 755 million} contributing US$ 873 million to the national exchequer. Regained market leadership in Mogas during FY 04 by elevating market share to 44% Set financial landmarks over the last 4 years with earnings almost doubled from Rs.2.3 billion to Rs. 7.06 billion maximizing shareholders value. Only Pakistani corporation to become member of the World Economic Forum based on stringent and forward looking criteria. Only company in Pakistan whose turnaround and remarkable performance is cited in various case studies both locally and internationally. Around 3,800 retail outlets across the country including 1,000 New Vision outlets commissioned within five years. Vast infrastructure of 9 installations and 23 depots from Karachi to Chitral and a supply chain supported by 2000 strong tank-lorry fleet and 950 railway wagons. Extensive storage capacity, almost 15% of total national storage, i.e. around 160,000 metric tons. A company fully aware of HSE standards and using these as part of continuous improvement process. ISO 9001:2000 certification of major retail outlets, Mobile Quality Testing Units and key installations/ depots and ISO 14001:1996 distinction for Kemari Terminal C. Leading National Company committed to support ongoing or innovative social and charitable projects in the field of education, health, welfare, women empowerment, etc. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 COMPANY INTRODUCTION 7 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Vision Evaluation 8 1.3 Values 8 1.4 Responsibilities: 8 1.5 Future Engagements 9 2 MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATION 11 2.1 Definition 11 2.2 Motivation Process 11 2.3 Employee Motivation at Workplace 11 3 MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES ADOPTED AT SHELL PAKISTAN 13 3.1 Alderfers ERG Theory 13 3.1.1 Difference between Maslows Hierarchy of Need Alderfers 13 3.1.2 Alderfers ERG Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 14 3.1.3 Relatedness 15 3.1.4 Growth 15 3.2 Equity Theory 16 3.2.1 Theory Overview 16 3.2.2 Equity Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 18 3.3 Expectancy Theory 18 3.3.1 Theory Overview: 18 3.3.2 Expectancy Flowchart: 19 3.3.3 Expectancy Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 20 4 OTHER MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AT SHELL PAKISTAN 21 4.1 Employee Appraisal 21 4.2 Intrinsic Awards at SHELL PAKISTAN 23 4.3 Employee Involvement 24 4.3.1 Employee Involvement AT SHELL PAKISTAN 24 4.4 Flexible Benefits 25 4.4.1 Retirement Plans 25 4.4.2 Health Insurance 26 4.4.3 Unexpected Conditions 26 4.4.4 Rightsizing 27 4.5 De-motivated Employees 27 4.5.1 Counseling 27 4.5.2 Career Development 27 5 SURVEY DETAILS 28 5.1 Job Satisfaction 28 5.2 Work Environment 30 5.3 Employee Empowerment 32 5.4 Performance Appraisal Satisfaction 33 5.5 Flexible Benefits 35 6 CONCLUSION 36 7 RECOMMENDATION 38 8 APPENDIX A: Survey Questionnaire 39 COMPANY INTRODUCTION Introduction The history of Shell as a brand name in South Asia is more than 100 years old. Shell brand name dating back to 1899 when Asiatic Petroleum, the marketing arm of two companies: Shell Transport Company and Royal Dutch Petroleum Company began their imports of kerosene oil from Azerbaijan in South Asia. Till today, the heritage of the past is noticeable in a market of South Asia since 1898 In 1928, to make their distribution capability efficient effective, the market concentration of  Royal Dutch Shell plc and the Burma Oil Company Limited in sub-continent had merged and Burma Shell Oil Storage Distribution Company of sub-continent was born. After the independence of Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1947, the name changed to the Burma Shell Oil Distribution Company of Pakistan. During 1970, when 51% of the shareholding was transferred to Pakistani investors, the name changed to Pakistan Burma Shell (PBS) Limited. The Shell and the Burma Groups retained the remaining 49% in equal propositions. In February 1993, as economic liberalization began to take root and the Burma provided opportunity to Pakistani Investors by divesting from PBS, Shell Petroleum (Pakistan) stepped into raise its shareholding to 51%. The years 2001-2 have seen the Shell Petroleum Company successively increasing its stake, with the Group now having a 76% stake in Shell Pakistan Ltd (SPL) an expr ession of confidence Shell has an over 100 years presence in the Subcontinent http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/who_we_are/history/history_logo/ (Date:26-11-2010, Time:18:00) Vision Evaluation The Vision of Shell as a company related to energy industry have been very strict focused to competition. The futuristic approach has let to the group in investing innovating different sources of energy apart from oil petroleum. Values We set high standards of performance and ethical behaviour that we apply internationally. The Shell General Business Principles, Code of Conduct and Code of Ethics help everyone at Shell act according to our core values of honesty, integrity and respect for people and to comply with relevant legislation and regulations. http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/who_we_are/our_values_and_principles/ (Date: 26-11-2010, Time: 21:00) Responsibilities: Shell Pakistan put its total efforts to implement its core values and ethical conduct by fulfilling its responsibilities expectations to its employees, customers, investors, shareholders to society. Employees: Shell Pakistan always puts the safety security of its employees first. This depicts that the organization has a deep concern for its employees value the work efforts by which it wants to achieve success. Customers: The organization has a high motive to attract retain customers by providing them the products that are competitive in price of high standards in quality. The competition in energy sector has been highly focused by Shell investments in innovative products have always been there. Investors: It is important for Shell Pakistan that its investors base remains supportive to the organization so that when it needs to expand or restructure any of its function or component, the business always have financial support to effectively pursue that. Shareholders: Shareholders are the real owners of the organization. Shell Pakistan makes most of its efforts to protect shareholders investments provide them with competitive benefits of long term (capital growth) short term returns (dividends). To Society: There are many aspects of responsibility to society. Some of them are Corporate, Environmental sustainability concern for general people that the business directly or indirectly effects to. Shell Pakistan has clear policies for it sustainability has participated in flood relief in Pakistan by providing aids to the most effected. http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/media_centre/news_and_media_releases/2010/flood_2010.html (Date: 26-11-2010, Time: 13:49) Future Engagements To engage in backward integration by acquiring a major National Refinery. This has a capacity of 2.8 million tons of which sales to SHELL PAKISTAN are 25%. To develop a white oil pipeline in collaboration with major POL companies so as to eliminate transportation inefficiencies. Invest in the business of coal mining to capture a lucrative fuel source to which most consumers are switching. MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATION Definition No other topic in the field of Organizational Behavior (OB) has received as much attention as the subject of motivation. . (FTC, 2009) Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can be defined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work, according. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) This is an excellent working definition for use in business. Now that we understand what motivation is, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and then a look at some of the theories on motivation. (Latham, 2007) Motivation Process Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of tension => New unsatisfied needs (Adair, 2009) Employee Motivation at Workplace Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what keeps you going. Jim Ryun The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. But thats easier said than done! Motivation practice theories are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines. . (FTC, 2009) In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of motivation is not clearly understood and more often than not poorly practiced. To understand motivation one must understand human nature itself. And there lies the problem! Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and appreciation of this is prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership (Latham, 2007) . There is an old saying You can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; he will drink if he is thirsty That is also the case with people; they will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do, whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the ivory tower. The people or employees must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimulus. (Adair 2009 Leadership and Motivation) Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. if no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill, which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed. Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus Job Performance = f (ability) (motivation) Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its improvements is a slow and long process. On the other hand motivation can be improved quickly. There are many options and an uninitiated manager may not even know where to start. As a guideline, there are broadly seven strategies for motivation. Positive reinforcement / high expectations Effective discipline and punishment Treating people fairly Satisfying employees needs Setting work related goals Restructuring jobs Base rewards on job performance These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final recipe will vary from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between an individuals actual state and some desired state and the manager tries to reduce this gap (Latham, 2007) Motivation is, in effect, a means to reduce and manipulate this gap. It is inducing others in a specific way towards goals specifically stated by the motivator. Naturally, these goals as also the motivation system must conform to the corporate policy of the organization. The motivational system must be tailored to the situation and to the organization. (Adair, 2009) SHELL PAKISTAN is a huge setup and has about 2000 employees. To keep all of its employees motivated is a very complex task, because of the large number of employees and as each employee has his/her own personality. It becomes virtually impossible to devise techniques that match the personality of all the employees. So for this purpose they have certain procedures and policies jointly for all the employees of the organization. MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES ADOPTED AT SHELL PAKISTAN Alderfers ERG Theory Alderfers theory is called the ERG theory Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. Alderfers ERG Theory can well be compared with Maslows Hierarchy of Need Theory cause Alderfers has tried to cover all the points as discussed by Maslows with a little change, which is discussed below. . (FTC, 2009) Existence: Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence requirements; what Maslows called physiological and safety needs. Relatedness: Refers to the desire we have for maintaining interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslows social/love need, and the external component of his esteem need. Growth: Refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development; the intrinsic component of Maslows esteem need, and self-actualization. (Latham, 2007) Difference between Maslows Hierarchy of Need Alderfers Alderfers ERG theory differs from Maslows Need Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be operative at the same time. ERG theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need must be substantially satisfied before one can move on. (FTC, 2009) ERG Theory argues, like Maslows that satisfied lower-order needs lead to desire to satisfy higher-order needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower-level need. (Adair, 2009) Alderfers ERG Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN Existence SHELL PAKISTAN gratifies the need for existence and the employees at SHELL PAKISTAN think that their basic needs are being satisfied but they dont seem to be completely satisfied with it especially with the material rewards that they get. For e.g. Average Salary The employees at SHELL PAKISTAN are not satisfied with their salaries and they consider it to be average. This view is strongly found in the lower grade employees and the contractual employees. Though the upper level employees that include the Departmental Heads, General Managers and above seem to be much satisfied with what they are paid. Excellent Working Environment Though the average salary seems to be de-motivating factor for the low level employees and the contractual employees but due to the excellent working environment that SHELL PAKISTAN provides, these employees seem to be seldom de-motivated. It was surprising for us to find that there had been various employees who just wanted to work in SHELL PAKISTAN because of the working environment they provide regardless of what they are paid and what job responsibilities are they given. This turned out to be one of SHELL PAKISTANS strongest points. Job Security Working at SHELL PAKISTAN seems to be a secure job as far as the permanent and high-level employees are concerned but the contractual employees never find it to be as secure. But due to job security being a major issue in Pakistan today, these contractual employees were hesitant to voice their complaint. (Latham, 2007) Insurance Medical Benefits All permanent employees at SHELL PAKISTAN enjoy the Life Insurance and Medical Benefits that are entitled to them. In contrast the contractual employees; realizing the downward trend in the economy, just want a stable job regardless of the insurance and medical benefits provided by SHELL PAKISTAN. (Latham, 2007) Employee Safety The employee safely is given top most importance and they also have an emergency evacuation system with which the entire organization can be evacuated within minutes. The employees also given various training and sometimes perform various drills for employee safety. The employee seems to be satisfied with the safety that SHELL PAKISTAN provides to them. Relatedness These needs are social in nature and they are about the interpersonal relationships of the staff. Good Working Relationship At SHELL PAKISTAN, these needs are quite well satisfied since the employees have a good working relationship even though there is an air of competency surrounding them. Self Differences between High Level Employee It has also been noticed that few of the high level employees at organization have some self differences that are developed due to status problems and ownership problems which effect the process of maintaining a good interpersonal relationship but then again the high level employees are professionals and they tend to forget these difference when they meet each other a global level. (Latham, 2007) Company Events and Privileges All employees are given the special privilege to join and use the SHELL PAKISTAN club, gym, attend in Company events, dinner etc thus allowing them to intermingle with each more. Growth The permanent and high-level employees are satisfied with the growth opportunities that SHELL PAKISTAN provides them every now and then. Training Employee training workshops are conducted on a need basis. Trainings are carried out in areas such as: Improvement of Business Communication skills Usage of new Computer software Encourages Ideas Employees are encouraged to put forward any creative, beneficial ideas. If the idea seems to be attractive, SHELL PAKISTAN gives the employees the opportunity to implement the idea. This turns out to be a very encouraging and motivating approach for the employees and later on the employees are rewarded if the idea is implemented well. (Latham, 2007) Employee Job Rotation For the purpose of employee growth and increase in motivation, employees are often rotated within or between departments. Equity Theory Theory Overview Equity (or inequity) is a psychological state residing within an individual. It creates a feeling of dissonance that the individual attempts to resolve in some manner (Latham, 2007) Equity is a social comparison process, resulting when individuals compare their pay to the pay of others. There is no rational or single equitable pay rate for any given job or individual. Equity is a subjective evaluation, not an objective one. Based on the comparisons that an individual uses, each individual is likely to develop different perceptions of equity. (Latham, 2007) The comparisons that individuals use tend to fall into four classes of comparison: Self Inside: An employees experiences in a different position inside his current organization. (Adair, 2009) Self outside: An employees experiences in a different position outside his current organization. Other Inside: Another Individual or group of individuals inside the employees organization. Other Outside: Another Individual or group of individuals outside the employees organization. (Latham, 2007) Individuals determine equity by comparing their contributions (job inputs) and their rewards (job outcomes) to those of their comparisons. This comparison takes the form of a ratio and if this ratio is in balance, the individual perceives equity. Inequity is experienced when ratio is out of balance. Thus when an individual perceives that his/her contribution is equal to the comparison and his/her reward is lower or his/ her contribution is greater and reward is equal, inequity is felt. (Latham, 2007) The individual responses to inequity include: Leaving the organization Reduction in performance, generally extra role behavior Attempting to increase ones pay Attempting to reduce the performance of others Rationalization- perceptually altering reward and/or contribution What do individuals view as relevant contributions? Given the perceptual nature of equity, the answer varies with each individual; however, contributions fall into a number of categories: Job contributions Include the factors that differentiate one job from another. They typically include responsibility, skills, education, and working conditions required by the job itself. (e.g., individuals working in jobs requiring greater levels of responsibility generally expect higher levels of pay). (Parson and Maclaran, 2009) Personal contributions Include attributes the individuals bring to the organization that they believe differentiate them from others such as experience, longevity and extra education (e.g., individuals with greater seniority often expect higher levels of pay). Performance contributions Include the extra effort/results that differentiate one employee from another (e.g., individuals who perceive that their performance is better than others with whom they work, often believe they are entitled to higher levels of pay. (Latham, 2007) Typical Management interests Managers generally define pay-related problems in terms of their behavioral consequences (turnover or performance). Therefore, inequity itself is not generally viewed as a management problem unless it appears to be related to turnover of reduced performance. Since the links between turnover and pay are often much clearer than those between pay and extra role behavior, turnover often becomes the only managerial focus. Therefore, typical management interests relate to keeping the employees who it deems valuable.(Latham, 2007) Typical Employee Interests From the employee perspective, the perception of inequity is a problem in itself. A unions interests lies in achieving equity for the greatest number of its members, regardless of their ability to leave the organization. In fact, it is a unions responsibility to bargain for the interests of those with limited individual power or marketability. Low morale is often a consequence of inequity. Even when low morale is not manifested in turnover, reduced performance, to reluctance to take on extra duties, from the employee perspective, it is still viewed as a problem. (Adair, 2009) Equity Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN Employee Performance Appraisal Employee performance appraisal procedure is highly accountable thus leaving no chance of inequity among employees. Employee Salary Evaluation An employees educational qualification is given highest importance when evaluating salary. It may be possible that a lower grade employee, within the same or different department, has a higher salary than someone in an immediately higher grade. Thus inequity sometimes arises among employees working in a higher group within the same or different departments. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) Expectancy Theory Theory Overview: The expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. In more practical terms this theory says That an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good performance appraisal will lead to organizational rewards like a bonus, a salary increase, or a promotion; and that the rewards will satisfy the employees personal goals (Latham, 2007) Expectancy The expectancy is the belief that ones effort will result in attainment of desired performance goals. This belief, or perception, is generally based on an individuals past experience, self-confidence (often termed self-efficiency) and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goals. (Adair, 2009) Instrumentality The extent of individuals belief of performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Valance The extent of attractiveness of rewards offered by an organization that must satisfy an individuals requirements retain them by prospect potential development within career organization. Example Include: Do I want a bigger raise? Is it worth the extra effort? Do I want a promotion? Expectancy Flowchart: (Vroom  V H.  (1964) Work And Motivation) Valence Instrumentality Expectancy OUTCOME PERFORMANCE EFFORT REWARD Expectancy Theory states that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of expectation that an act will be followed by a given outcomes and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) Expectancy Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN At SHELL PAKISTAN the employees believe in maximum effort which leads to good performance which further results in the outcome in the form of rewards like a raise in income, promotion, performance appraisal letter etc that contribute towards their personal goals. Contractual Employee Views The contractual employees are also aware of this theory but they dont follow it because it has been found that their basic aim is to become a permanent employee. But becoming permanent employee doesnt entirely depend on the performance. It also depends if there is any permanent slot available. So the contractual employees are aware of the facts that even if they perform well, they cannot become permanent unless there is a slot available. So this serves as a very de-motivating factor for the contractual employees and this is the reason they dont hesitate to switch the job whenever they get even a slight better opportunity or a permanent place in some other organization. (Adair, 2009) Effort At SHELL PAKISTAN, the employees are aware of the fact that if they work competently and put their efforts, they will be able to attain the task performance, as the effort expanded by them will have a positive result. Performance When the employees of SHELL PAKISTAN put their efforts, they attain the desired performance level and consequently are evaluated on that ground. (Latham, 2007) Instrumentality: Instrumentality is also quite high in the company as the management assigns a certain % of work that the employees have to achieve, through which, they are evaluated at the time of dispensing rewards. The % of work is in terms of yearly goals, monthly goals and weekly goals. Rewards When the employees attain certain level of work performance gauged against the goals set at the start of the year, they are positively evaluated and get rewards in shape of annual increment; and organizational performance rewards etc. Valance: The employees attach a great deal of value to the rewards they get. The rewards are often in the form of a praise or recognition, to which the employees attach a great deal of significance. Monetary rewards are costly and require loads of time and energy. Therefore the management is not too keen on imparting such gifts. (Latham, 2007) OTHER MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AT SHELL PAKISTAN Employee Appraisal At SHELL PAKISTAN, employee appraisals are conducted annually to evaluate their work related and personal performance. The process of appraisal works in various steps and the HRM department is proud to have such a system instilled in the company where no one objects to the appraisal process as its considered to be the fairest attempt of grading an employee in the company. The appraisal process is held in between the months of July and June every year. Increments and promotions are devised after this period that becomes effective from the month of October, the same year. Performance Appraisal at SHELL PAKISTAN is a six step approach. Step 1: SHELL PAKISTAN HR department have designed two forms named as Form 1A and form 1B to measure the milestone, target achievements that were made last year. This is done by comparing the goals set last year for each individual employee under their department. Once measured, it is sought out to what extent the company was successful in achieving its target. Also, targets are set for the next year on the basis of this measurement. Step 2: In the next step, HRM department does performance analysis by distributing to departmental heads and supervisors Form 2A and 2B (Collectively known as Employee Development Report) to measure the employees capabilities on 24 different attributes and of the attribute is rated on the scale of 1 to 5; summary of these points is reflected in the table below Rating Point Summary 1 Inadequate, Not satisfactory 2 Marginal, Below Average 3 Average 4 Above Average 5 Outstanding The 24 different attributes are divided in to key 4 sections; a summary of those is listed below: Employee Development Report (EDR) A What did the employee accomplish? Quality of work Cost objective Profit objective Develop people Commitment to company vision, value and corporate objective B Gets the job done Planning Organizational communication Analysis